Nature of Public Policy

 

According to Anderson (1975), “the nature of public policy as a course of action can be better or fully understood if it is broken down into number of categories, these being policy policy demands, decisions, statements, outputs and outcomes. In practice, they will not necessarily occur in a neat sequential order."

1. Policy demands

Policy demands are the claims made by individuals or other actors with the government in a political system for action or inaction on some perceived problem. Such demands may range from a general insistence that the government ought to do something to a proposal for specific action on the matter. There are various factors which gives rise a need of policy demand. They may be  as for examples, the ideology of democracy, political factor, economic factor, and pressure of general public (Mather 2001). This has enforced the government to formulate a particular policy to overcome the problem. In the Nepalese case, an increasing pressure from the general public to band polluted vehicles in Kathmandu valley had forced the government to realize a need to control pollution produced by such vehicles. Similarly, due to an increasing pressure from donor communities to undertake economic reform programs to achieve macroeconomic stability, had forced the government to realize a need of economic reforms in Nepal in the decade of eighties.

2. Policy decisions

Realizing a need of policy, the next step is to make policy decision. Policy decisions are the decisions made by public officials that authorize or give direction and content to public policy actions as accordance to the demand of individuals or other actors of a political system (Anderson 1975). It includes decision to enact a law or policy by the parliament, issues executive orders or edicts, promulgate administrative rules, or make important judicial interpretation of the-law. For example, after realizing the need to control environmental pollution, the government enacted the Nepal Mass Emission Standard 1994. In the same way, realizing need to reform the economy, the government initiated various programs including external sector reform, privatization and liberalization, and financial sector reform to liberalize the economy after the restorati of a multiparty democracy in 1990. All these are policy decision made by the in course of materializing policy demand.

3. Policy statements

Policy statements are a formal expression or articulation of public policy They include legislative statutes, executive orders and decrees, administrative rules and regulations, and court opinions. In addition, it includes statement and speech made by public officials indicating intentions and goals of realize them. The policy statements are sometimes ambitious and policies issued by different agencies of a political system may be responsibility of the top political leaders to make the policy statement as realistic as possible and to reconcile conflicting interest of the stakeholder.

1.     Policy outputs

 Policy outputs are tangible manifestation of public policies. It is what the government does as distinguished from what it says - it is going to do.The matters like tax collection, highway construction, provision of irrigation facilities, distribution of drinking water telephone lines and electricity, and school enrollment ae policy output. As for example, during the Ninth Plan, the government had the policy statement to bring down poverty level to 32%, it is the policy output.

6.Policy Outcomes

Policy outcomes are the consequences for a particular social group or groups, intended or unintended, that flow form action or inaction by the government (Anderson 1975). Policy outcomes show effect of public policies on life of the people. In other words, it shows whether there is divergence between policy output and policy outcomes, i.e.. commitment and outcome. In the Nepalese context, several programs have been implemented to reduce poverty, to reduce inequality, and to generate employment opportunities. In order to see the policy outcome, we should study about their effect in the society, on where the policies are being implemented. As for example, how much improvement was brought on the living standard of the people, how much of employment opportunity was generated by the programs, how much of the inequality was reduced h the poverty alleviation programs, how much of the poor got institutional credit facilities. Questions such as these may be quite difficult to answer, but they direct our attention to assess the impact of public policy.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Decentralization, Development and Democratic Governance of Nation go Hand in Hand

Decentralization: It is the establishment of local bodies outside the regular bureaucratic structure. It is the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the central government to subordinate or quasi-independent local bodies or private sector. It refers to the restructuring of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between the institutions of governance at the central, regional and local levels.

Development: According to MP tomato, development is process of improving the quality of all human lives with three equally important aspects:

A)    Raising people's living levels i.e. income and consumption, level of foods, medical services, education through relevant growth process.

B)     Creating conditions conductive to the growth of peoples self esteem through the establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions which promote human dignity and respect.

C)      Increasing peoples freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice variables eg; varieties of goods and services.

Democratic Governance: It is running the government according to the principles of democracy i.e. increasing participation of people, listening the opinions of people on public policy. Democratic governance runs on the principle of: of the people,by the people, from the people and for the people

Relationship between Decentralization, Democratic Governance and Development:

As above mentioned in the definition, decentralization transfers the authority from the center to the people. This transfer of authority enables the people to develop development according to their needs, increase their participation, making people freedom to choose their leaders and policy. These all are the aspirations of development and democratic governance. The above mentioned definition of development according to Todaro clearly shows the principle of decentralization and democratic governance. The main point of Todaros definition are:

A)    Raising people's living levels i.e. income and consumption, level of foods, medical services, education through relevant growth process.

The rise mentioned in this definition can only be achieved through decentralization since if the authority over resources and finance comes on the hand of the people.

B)     Creating conditions conductive to the growth of peoples self esteem through the establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions which promote human dignity and respect.

The conditions described in the above point can only be achieved when there is democratic governance and decentralization. When there is democratic governance, people can express their opinions and views which help to build their self-esteem and the required social, political and economic systems and institutions is only possible when the decentralization is effectively implemented.

C)      Increasing peoples freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice variables eg; varieties of goods and services.

Freedom to choose and Freedom to express can only be achieved through the democratic governance. Country which is ruled under the autocracy can never achieve and never allow the freedom to the people.

 

The main requirement of democratic governance is decentralization. Democratic Governance is only possible through the decentralization. Democratic governance runs according to the principle and proposal of decentralization where people can choose their leaders and where the authority resides on the hands of the people. In the absence of decentralization, the existence of democratic governance is only myth. In the unitary states, the democratic governance is almost impossible since people are not allowed to choose their leaders.

Development is not only about the economic growth but rather a freedom to express opinions. When there is not that freedom, the democratic governance has not any authenticity.

Conclusion: Hence, decentralization, democratic governance and decentralization are the three sides of the triangle and these can’t exist without others.

State Restructuring of Nepal based on the Federal Democratic Republic

Federal : Our country adopted federalism in 2075 BS. Our country is divided into 7 Provinces with One Federal Government. The agenda of federalism came during People Movement II. Basically, federal means a country which has adopted federalism and is divided into states or provinces. After the declaration of Constitution 2075, Nepal was declared as Federal country.

Democratic: Our country got democracy in 2007 BS from the autocratic Rana Regime. After Democracy, people appointed their leaders and formed Interim Constitution 2007 which declared Nepal as Democratic Country.

Republic: Our Country became republic in 2063 BS after the last Shah King Gyanendra resigned from his throne and gave the throne to the people. Later the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 BS declared our Country Federal Democratic Republic.

State Restructuring in Nepal

 The issue of state restructuring in Nepal came after by the great Nepali people in the people’s Movement 2006 and its achievements, the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007 has been promulgated. According to the article 33(4) of the constitution, it has made provision that there will be progressive, inclusive and democratic state restructuring to end the existing centralized and unitary structure of the state including all discriminations based on class, caste, language, gender, culture, religion and region. So the present state must be restructured for complete overhauling of the age old cultural, psychological and economic dependence and malaise of Nepalese society and for establishing institutional development of the democratic republic with appropriate constitutional and structural arrangements so as people’s sovereign power could be exercised from grassroots levels(community, village, setttlements).

Features of Old Nepal

•          75 Districts

•          14 Anchal

•          5 Development Regions

•          One Government (Nepal Sarkar)

•          One Official Language

•          One National Dress

•          One citizenship

•          One bureaucracy

•          Hinduism as a state religion

Features of New Nepal

Constitution of Nepal 2075

Nepal as a Federal Democratic Republic

State to be divided into 7 Provinces

Districts to be redefined

Local Units under province government

Three tiers of Government:1 Federal Government,7 Provincial and Local Government (753Local Units; 6 Metropoliton, 276 Urban Municipalities, 460 Rural Municipality)

More than one provincial state

Federal and provincial bureaucracy

Secular state

Big questions for state restructuring

•          What steps to be taken for making people more powerful to restructure the state in a progressive manner?

•          What helps restructure the state mechanism so as to promote general welfare of the people?

•          How can this process be made more participatory and inclusive? 

Stage of Public Policy

Stage I: Setting the Agenda

It is the first step in public policy formulation. Agenda is the list of subject or problem to which government officials and people outside the government officials are paying some serious attention at any given period. At this stage problems requiring government to take actions are identified by government. Following are the things which determine the agenda:

a.      Ideology

Every society operates in a separate ideology. A policy must be according to the ideology of the society.

b.     Politics

It is the second thing that matter on the agenda. A political perspective is adopted not necessarily related to any political party and issues related to that particular perspective are likely to receive consideration.

c.      Economics

Though politics play major role in policy formulation, political parties do not formulate their manifestos in an empty and they must consider economics. Here economics means resources which are used to do about an issue. The behavior of national and international economy affects the agenda of public policy making.

d.     Crises

It gives rise agenda for public policy. Crises like the HIV/AIDS, the Gulf War, various terrorist activities and many others demands a policy to counter them. Sometimes crisis means a rethinking of a whole area of public policy.

e.      Pressure

Pressure from different groups also give rise agenda for public policy. Public pressure may be applied even without a crisis situation if a group is sufficiently well organized and well resourced to force attention.

          Stage II: Formulating the Answers

           The responses to the demand for public policies primarily depends upon which resources are required and how they may be required. There are especially three types of resources used for formulating public policies:

a.      Material: It includes finance, land and capital.

b.     Technical: It includes expertise, efficiency and effectiveness.

c.      Support: It includes support from various stakeholders.

Stage III: Making Decision

Policy is prepared by experts but the decision to be implemented is taken by politicians. Making decision includes the following:

a.      Making a Decision: It means a relatively open agenda with a number of different options to consider including the decision not to decide at all.

b.     Taking a Decision: It means agreement with a proposal that is set out in full detail before the legislator. It is the government that sets the agenda and formulate policies.

Stage IV: Implementing the Decision

Once the decision is made, it is implemented by the executive branch of the government. It requires the same resources as those required for policy formulation such as finance, land and capital.

Stage V: Evaluation

It is the final stage. It includes the monitoring, analysis , criticism and assessment of existing or proposed policies. It’s purpose is not to justify a policy rather to check its effectiveness so that if it is seen to be unsuccessful it may be adjusted.

Public Policy and it's Types

Public Policy

It is the instrument by which government translates political vision into deliverable outcomes for achieving desired changes. It is the system of laws, regulatory measures, courses of action and funding priorities concerning a national agenda promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives. The formula of successful public policy  is rationality, logic to produce desired outcomes, emotional effectiveness for motivated association and strategic actions to lead policy implementations.

Characteristics of Public Policy:

a.      It is purposive or goal oriented.

b.     It follows a pattern of action.

c.      It is either positive or negative in form.

d.     It is an actual doing of government.

e.      It is based on law and authoritative action.

Types of Public Policy:

a.      Regulatory Policy

It is regulatory in nature. It imposes restrictions on behaviors of the economic agents. It reduces the freedom enjoyed by economic agents. It is concerned with regulation of trade, business, safety, measures and public utilities.

b.     Self-Regulatory Policy

It involve restriction or control of some matter or group. They differ from the regulatory policies as they are usually sought and supported by a regulated group as means of protecting or promoting their own interests.

c.      Distributive Policy

It is meant for specific segments of the society. It grants goods and services such as all public assistance and welfare program to a specific segment of the society.

d.     Re-distributive Policy

It is designed to redistribute certain goods and services such as income and wealth in favor of certain groups in a society. It is the deliberate effort of a government to shift distribution of income and wealth from wealthy to poor and disabled groups in the society.

e.      Substantive Policy

It involve what a government is going to do such as construction of highways or payment of welfare benefits. It is concerned with general welfare and development of a society.

f.       Procedural Policies

It involve who is going to take action or how is it going to be done. It is the procedures which government bodies have to perform while performing certain activities.

g.     Capitalization Policies

It is the financial subsidies given by a government to state and local government. It is also granted to the central and state business undertakings or some other important spheres. It’s aim is to increase production or productive capacity of an economy.

h.     Ethical Policies

It is policy targeted to regulate moral actions of individuals. Moral and ethical values of citizen play an important role to build good institutions which are conductive for economic growth.

i.       Material or Symbolic Policy

Material Policy-It provide tangible resources or substantive power to beneficiaries or impose real cost/disadvantages on those who are adversely affected.

Symbolic Policy-It distributes advantages or disadvantages which have unsubstantial impact on life of common people.

j.       Goal Policies

It is the set of a goal to be achieved without maintaining anything about the means. It emphasizes the goal to be achieved but does not include means through which the goal is to be achieved.

k.     Liberal or Conservative Policy

Liberal Policy-It is directed towards the correction of injustices and shortcomings in the existing social order by using the power of government.

Conservative Policy-It focuses that social change occur slowly and gradually through the natural order and do not favor the use of government power to change the social order.

l.       Substantive, Institutional and Time period Policy

Substantive Policy-It includes labor, welfare, civil rights and foreign affairs.

Institutional Policy-It include legislative, judicial and departmental policies.

Time Period Polices- It is the policy expressed w.r.t time period.

m.   Role Policies

It specify action to be formed or work to be done.

Centralization and Decentralization

Centralization

It is a concept that denotes the concentration of authority in a particular

position. It is making the works done from the central authority. There is low or no involvement of the local institutions in the service delivery options. The accountability, responsibility an resources capacity lies on the central bodies whereas local people are only service receivers. It is applicable to the beginning phase of any country with less diversity and service demand, no development in local leadership.

Strengths of Centralization:

1. Emphasis on top-down control leadership

2. Decision making strong

3. Organizational change shaped by the vision of the top leader

4. Fast and coordinated action which is able to respond quickly to major issues and changes.

5. Low risks of conflicts

6. Easier to implement uniform policies and practices for the whole country

7. Prevents the other parts of the country to become too much independent hence maintains national integration

Drawbacks of Centralization:

1. Lack of authority down the hierarchy may reduce the local leaders motivation.

2. Does not maintain public participation

3. Public service misses flexibility and speed of decision making.

4. Does not address the local needs effectively

5. Does not maintain accountability and transparency

6. Service delivery will be slow due to the bureaucratic process

Decentralization

It is the establishment of local bodies outside the regular bureaucratic structure. It is the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the central government to subordinate or quasi-independent local bodies or private sector. It refers to the restructuring of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between the institutions of governance at the central, regional and local levels.

Strengths of Centralization:

1.     Emphasis bottom up approach

2.     Decision making will be democratic

3.     Increasement in participation and accountability

4.     Decision making will be closer to the public

5.     better able to address the local needs effectively

6.     good way of training and developing leaders

7.     organizational change due to the interactions

Drawbacks of the Decentralization:

1.     Worsens the service delivery in the absence of effective controls and oversight

2.     deteriorates service quality due to over burden and out of capacity of local government

3.     local elites gain undue advantage by overcoming rules

4.     creates new ethnic and religious rivalries

5.     may lead to regional imbalances

 

Inclusive Democracy:

Introduction:

It means participation of all the citizen in the policy formulation to bring all

citizen of country in the main stream of the politics.  It is a form of social organization which re-integrate society with economy, polity and nature. It is derived from a synthesis of two major historical traditions- Classical Democratic and Socialist.

Elements of Inclusive Democracy:

There is four constituent element of inclusive democracy-political, democracy, economic and ecological. The first three elements aims at the equal distribution of political, economic, and social power.

Inclusive Democracy tools:

1)     Participation a with control

2)     Empowerment and Capacity Development

3)     Proportional Representation

4)     Reservation, Social protection, subsidies

5)     Legal protection

6)     Awareness program

7)     Empower to weaker

8)     Opportunity to excluded

9)     Investment in Human Development and poverty alleviation

Self-Help Group(SHG)

Introduction:

It is a popular concept. It is almost two decade old. It help to increase economic

development of a country. It is now evolved as a movement.

Principle: It is based on the : group approach, mutual trust of small and manageable group, spirit of thrift, peer group pressure in re-payment, skill training, capacity building and empowerment

Characteristics:

1.     It is a voluntary association.

2.     It has a member of 15-20 people.

3.     It has a collective goal.

4.     It has a feeling of mutual help/ mutual support.

5.     It is informal group.

6.     It addresses the group's common problems.

Role of SHG

1)     Most of its members are women as a result participation of women in the country's development is increasing.

2)     It helps to elevate the economic status of member families.

3)     It helps to boost in women empowerment.

4)     It can serve many different purposes depending on the situation and the need.